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Nearly all the discussions on water tend to agree on its importance to humanity. The perception of water in African societies is that it is unquestionably something that is part of humanity, and societies have long understood the power of water in influencing their lives. Traditionally, water has been the basis for development of culture, and communities have followed water wherever it has existed. It is not surprising, therefore, that people in Southern Africa generally live in river basins and lake regions.
Unfortunately, however, water has been taken for granted. For the most part, the usual assumption is that water is always there, but only when water is scarce do people realize its importance. Although water causes disasters and floods, it is nevertheless the lack of it that has been the source of miseries and human suffering in most parts of Southern Africa. In fact, the most likely regional conflict in the future will be about water.
Water resources and water availability in Zambia have been previously discussed by Sharma (1985) and the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA, 1992). Zambia may have substantial surface and groundwater resources, but the problem of water is that it may not be in the form and quantity in which it is wanted by Zambiaís nearly eight million people for domestic, industrial, and agricultural purposes.
The Kafue Flats area has been the subject of ecological and social conflicts for nearly 30 years. Increasing human population and the growing demands on water resources in the area are serious issues, which form the basis for discussion in this study.
Issues of water use and water availability in Zambia can be approached from several perspectives. Zambia is a fairly large country; it covers about 753,000 square kilometers (km2). Of the 7.8 million people in Zambia, about 58 percent inhabit the rural area (CSO, 1992). According to Chipungu et al. (1994), it was estimated that at least 200-400 liters per day were accessible per person per year in the urban area, and roughly 100-200 liters per day were available per person per year in rural areas. These figures may indicate that the situation of water stress (Falkenmark and Widstand, 1992; Chenje and Johnson, 1994) does not arise. However, it does.
In the first place, the quality of water remains one of the most pressing issues in the country. Much of the population in Zambia is exposed to contaminated water and serious waterborne diseases such as cholera and schistosomiasis (or bilharzia), are endemic. In fact, cholera epidemics have occurred every year in many parts of the country.
An indication of the distribution of domestic water consumption was presented by Gaissie et al. (1992). As much as 48.4 percent of the rural population takes water from streams, lakes, ponds, or springs. Water from wells is equally contaminated as most of them are shallow. Similarly, piped water is also unsafe in many parts of Zambia because water is pumped from lakes, ponds, streams, or rivers and delivered in residences completely untreated.
Secondly, Zambia is located in the region of extreme seasonal and climatic variations. The main source of water in Zambia is rainfall since the underground sources are not well explored. Rainfall in Zambia averages between 1,100 millimeters (mm) and 1,400 mm, and much of this rainfall is confined to the northern part of the country. According to Tiffen and Mulele (1993), Zambia is prone to drought. Between 1981 and 1990, some parts of Zambia received less than 700 mm of rainfall. In general the rainy season in Zambia is short. Rainfall is quite erratic and poorly distributed, and the risk of water stress is prevalent in the southern half of the country.
Furthermore, pressure from the rapidly growing population is an important factor in land and water resources extraction. Zambiaís population is 7.8 million (CSO, 1992) and growing at a high rate of 3.2 percent. The fertility rate shows an average of 7.2 children being born to each female.
Clearly, with this growth rate, the potential for water stress is expected to be high. As more people live in Zambia than in the past, shifting settlements to follow water distribution is no longer sustainable in many parts of the country.
Human settlements have also changed somewhat. In some cases, these settlements may be located in areas where sufficient arable land exists and where other resources are available for exploitation, and not necessarily where sufficient water is available. Therefore, water has to be moved to where it is wanted.
The location of industries and major economic activities are sited in areas not necessarily compatible with the occurrence of water resources. Most economic activities in Zambia are located along railway lines and major roads, which were built primarily on watersheds.
Finally, population growth, densities, and dispersion are associated with environmental degradation. The excessive removal of vegetation, the over exploitation of aquatic resources, and pollution, among other factors, have adversely affected water quantity and quality. Consequently, they limit water accessibility.
In this report there are three main considerations. First, the Kafue Basin will be examined as the main source of water on which at least one third of Zambiaís population and its major industries depend. Secondly, in realizing the significance of wetlands in the country, the Kafue Flats will also be discussed in the context of its contribution as a wetland. Wetlands are very productive systems, but they are themselves under increasing threat in Zambia. Thirdly, in the final approach, the Kafue Flats will be examined as an example of the conflict over land use in Zambia. The Kafue Flats is an area that has previously been subjected to vigorous planning in the form of sectoral plans. Nevertheless, a series of conflicts have arisen from the manner in which water resources are shared. The isolation of inhabitants from all planning and implementation processes has been loudly criticized.
The main objective of this report is to suggest ways of how water could be managed on a sustainable basis without endangering the system. The effect of human population and its characteristics on water distribution, abundance, and quality is addressed. Recommendations showing future trends, scenarios, and strategies of water conservation in Kafue Flats are also made.
The Kafue Flats is located in the Southern Part of Zambia on the Kafue River, which is one of the main tributaries of the Zambezi River. The Flats is an extensive flood plain of about 255 kilometers long and 60 kilometers wide; it covers an area of more than 6,500 km2 (Williams, 1977; Chabwela, 1994). The average minimum elevation is about 1,000 meters. The area is one of the major wetlands in the country and important for water, conservation of fisheries, wildlife, grazing, and agriculture.
The Kafue Flats is directly or partially linked to eight districts in the Southern, Central, and Lusaka provinces. The area is to some extent affected by the 1.3 million inhabitants within the flats and on its watershed. The people are mainly engaged in agricultural and pastoral activities in rural areas. Two dams constructed at the Kafue Gorge in 1971 and another at Itezhitezhi in 1977 were developed for hydroelectric power generation. Namwala, Mazabuka, and Kafue townships are directly linked to Kafue Flats while nearly all the water in Lusaka is sourced from this wetland. Although major industries are located in the upper catchment in the Copperbelt Province, a number of industries are also established in the Mazabuka and Kafue townships.
There are two main seasons in Kafue Flats. The cool dry season extends from May to September, while the hot wet season ranges from November to March. Temperatures are quite variable, but the mean annual temperatures are 20.6ƒ Celsius (C), with maximum temperatures rising to 39ƒ C. The lowest recorded temperature was -1ƒ C. Kafue Flats is located in the low rainfall area which receives less than 800 mm of rain a year. As shown in Table 1, the mean annual rainfall is recorded as 535 mm at Itezhitezhi, while it is 795 mm at Kasaka near the Kafue Gorge. The lowest rainfall recorded was 214 mm in the 1978-1979 season, whereas the highest ever recorded rainfall was 1,184 mm in the 1975-1976 season at Kasaka. In general, rainfall is lower in the Itezhitezhi area than it is in the eastern area of the flood plain.
The Kafue River extends for 1,577 kilometers, rising from the northwestern and Copperbelt provinces of Zambia near the border with Zaire to the Zambezi River. The general hydrological features are shown in Table 2. The Kafue Basin has a total catchment of 154,000 km2, which is nearly one fifth of the total area of the country (Williams, 1977). On its way southward the river passes through the Lukanga Swamps and then curves eastward at Itezhitezhi to enter the Kafue Flats.
The water that feeds the Kafue Flats comes from the upper catchment of the river where rainfall is fairly high and there are a large number of tributaries. Nevertheless, the Kafue water yield is estimated at 10,000 cubic meters (m3) per year. This figure is roughly equivalent to 66 mm of rainfall over the catchment area with mean annual rainfall of 1,057 mm (Mutale and Mondoka, 1996). Thus, only approximately six percent of rains falling in the catchment reaches the river mouth (Table 2). The direct contribution of 45,526 km2 from the sub-catchment of the Kafue Flats is estimated at 314 m3 per second.
Much water is held by the dam at Itezhitezhi, thus allowing a mean flow of 248 m3 per second since 1977, the year the dam was completed. As was earlier predicted by Balasibrabmanyam and Abou-Zeid (1982), the release of less than 250 m3 per second could mean that all the water would be contained in the main channel, resulting in no flooding in the flats. Before the dam was constructed, the mean unregulated flow was 286 m3 per second. The lack of flooding and the increasing water demand for the Kafue Flats have become serious issues in water resources conservation in the area.
Balek (1977) and DVH (1979) attempted to derive water balance estimates in Kafue Flats. Kafue Flats receives water from a variety of sources: mean annual rainfall of 795 mm; streams such as Nanzhila and Nangoma; underground discharges; and the Itezhitezhi Reservoir through a mean discharge of 314 m3 per second. Although specific figures are not available, water losses are attributed to factors such as interception, evaporation, evapotranspiration, watershed leakage, water use by the environment (plant and wildlife), and by humans (Ward and Robinson, 1990).
The mean total annual evaporation rate between 1980-1990 was estimated at 2,366.8 mm. However, the highest monthly evaporation rates were recorded in October 1989 (Table 3). Nevertheless, records indicate very high total mean evaporative rates in Namwala (2442.9 mm per year). At Kasaka, the figure is considerably less at 2,089 mm (DHV, 1979). Evapotranspiration has been estimated at 1,000 mm per year (Balek, 1977).
According to records from JICA (1992), and Mutale and Mondoka (1996), at least 17.35 m3 per second of water is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes. Moreover, 284 m3 per second of water is used for power generation at the Kafue Gorge.
The amount of water in the Palustrine wetland dambos and springs in the catchment has not been investigated. It could be quite significant. Similarly, underground water resources have not been fully studied in this region, but there are indications that they could also be quite substantial (JICA, 1992).
A good account of the number of ethnic communities directly inhabiting the Kafue Flats was provided by Lehmann (1977) and Rennie (1980). While the exact number of populations of various communities has not been determined, the Twa and Ila tribes make up the largest ethnic groupings in the area. As Ilas dominate cattle rearing, the Twa lean toward fishing. At least 21 chieftaincies are located within the Kafue Basin subcatchment of the Kafue Flats (Marchand et al, 1983).
Mixed farming of the southern plateau system by the Tonga tribal community primarily involves cattle rearing and maize, cotton, and groundnuts production at a semi-commercial scale in the high grounds of the subcatchment (Schultz, 1976). The Kafue Flats in contrast are left for cattle grazing during the dry season when water and grass are most limited. Under the traditional farming arrangements, the Kafue Flats are never cultivated except in the Namwala mixed farming system. Cassava is grown there on a small scale for local consumption. Practiced by the Ila people, the Namwala mixed farming system involves maize, ground nuts, and vegetation production, in addition to cattle rearing. At least three quarters of the nearly 250,000 head of cattle are driven into the area to graze for six months. This tradition has been followed by many generations of these inhabitants.
Settlement patterns show distinct arrangements of the Twa people occupying the Kafue River levees in the chieftaincies of Mwanachingwala, Shakumbila, Mungaila, and Muwezwa. However, major population settlements are located in the southern part of Kafue River in Namwala, Monze, and Mazabuka districts, where population densities are greater than ten per square kilometer. These figures are usually greater than the national population density of 10.4 per km2 (CSO, 1992).
Although the exact figures on population growth and fertility rates have not been established for the area, according to the Zambian Central Statistical Office (CSO, 1992), the national population growth rate varies considerably. It ranges from 2.2 percent in the Western and Luapula provinces to 5.4 percent in Lusaka Province. The population growth rate is equally significant in Southern Province at 4.35 percent.
A general indication of the population in the region is given in Table 4. The Kafue Flats is directly affected by more than half of the areaís total population of 1.3 million. In Southern Province in 1969, the population was 96,000. Since that time, the population has rapidly expanded: 671,900 in 1980; 946,400 in 1990; and 1,011,700 in 1992.
No specific figures on population fertility rates have been established for the Kafue Flats region. However, as guided by the CSO (1992), the total fertility rate has been estimated at 7.2. This figure is slightly higher than the figures given by Gaissie et al. (1992), which estimate national fertility rates at 6.5, with rural areas being much higher (7.1) than the urban areas (5.8). The Southern Province fertility rate is given as 7.1. Therefore, fertility figures among individual females in the Kafue Flats are probably higher than 7.0.
Information is limited on the population movements in the Kafue Flats. However, it is known that large family groups moved from Mazabuka, Monze, and Choma districts to the region north of Lusaka in Lusaka and Central provinces between 1978 and 1990.
Most observers attribute these mass movements to several factors. First, the vast growth of human and cattle populations required much land for settlement and grazing. By 1990, human population in the region had grown from 96,000 to 946,400, while the cattle population had expanded to more than 250,000. A sharp land use conflict inevitably resulted, which at one time required the establishment of the Commission of Inquiry in a land matters dispute in Southern Province in 1982 (GRZ, 1982). Second, the location and expansion of the Nakambala Sugar Estate affected cattle movements into the Kafue Flats in the Chiefs Mwanachingwala and Sianjalika communities. Third, the construction of the hydroelectric dam at Itezhitezhi raised serious concerns: people in the area relied on regular flood patterns for improving the quality of the ranges used by their cattle. Fourth, these years had very little rainfall. Areas such as Choma and Kafue recorded mean rainfall of less than 800 mm (Tiffen and Mulele, 1993).
Current population movements into the area follow the increase in fishing and the improved market for fisheries products. While only the Twa people fish in Southern Province, a large population of migrant fishermen have moved into the area from the Western, Luapula, and Northern provinces of the country. They have established semi-permanent villages in the flood plain in the Luwato, Nyimba, Wanki, and Namalyo areas.
Hydropower Generation
The development of two dams on the Kafue River for hydropower generation was intended to support the expansion of the copper mining industry in the northwestern part of the country. Of the two projects, the Kafue Scheme was most preferred. However, in 1955 work on the Kariba had started following the unilateral decision of the federal government of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which considered the more expensive Kariba project as important for the region. The Kariba project was completed in 1960. Nevertheless, the postponement of the Kafue Scheme allowed detailed ecological impact studies to be conducted by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (UNFAO), whose work was completed in 1966. Although the Kariba power could supply electricity to the Copperbelt mines, implementation of the Kafue hydropower development in 1967 followed a political decision by Zambia to move away from the Kariba Scheme, a decision which was shared by Zambia and Zimbabwe (then Rhodesia).
The Kafue Scheme was proposed in several stages (Williams, 1977; Balasubrahmanyan and Abou-Zeid, 1982).
Stage I: This stage utilized a 400 meter drop in a 14 kilometer reach of the river, which had an initial capacity of 600 megawatts (MW). The principal features were the 45 meter high gorge dam and the Kafue George Reservoir, with its 800 m3 capacity to inundate the lower part of the Kafue Flats. This phase of the project was completed in 1972.
Stage II: This development provided for an additional two generating units of 150 MW each at the Kafue Gorge Upper Station to give a total output of 900 MW. It required improving water regulation and thus could only be accomplished by building backup storage at Itezhitezhi. The dam, 65 meters high with a reservoir of 5,700 m3, and the Kafue Gorge Reservoir were sufficient to ensure a firm output of more than 5,000 gigawatt hours(GWh) annually. This phase was completed in 1978.
Stage III: This stage involves the construction of the Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station so as to harness the remaining 200 meter-head of water. It was to have 450 MW capacity, making a total installed generating capacity for the gorge of 1,350 MW. This stage has not been implemented.
Stage IV: This phase includes the raising of the height of the Itezhitezhi Dam and the installation of a small generating unit. The current monthly mean storage of the dam is 4,464.8 m3, but its estimated storage capacity is 4,950 m3. This project phase has not been implemented.
The minimum requirement for the operation of electricity at the Kafue Gorge is 14,515,000 m3 per day (Table 5). Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation (ZESCO), a government parastatal company, is responsible for this hydropower development project.
While it has not been possible to derive accurate estimates of the impact of dam development in Kafue Flats, the major problem has been the reduction of flood levels. Floods resulting from the release of water at Itezhitezhi cause negative effects on the ecology because of poor timing and brief duration, which hardly supports biological productivity. Consequently:
The question of water use in the Kafue Flats has become quite critical. As much as 978,000 m3 per day is extracted from the Kafue River for commercial agriculture. Most of this water is used by the Nakambala Sugar Estate, which draws in excess of 720,000 m3 per day to irrigate 13,413 hectares of land for the production of sugar. Although irrigation is not well developed in the area, commercial agricultureóthe production of maize and wheatóaccounts for 258,000 m3 per day of water extraction. This amount is significant for some of the 153,000 hectares of private commercial farms and the 50,900 hectares of land for communal use. However, only 30,000 m3 per day is drawn for commercial ranching.
No evaluation of water consumption has been made for the small-scale producers. However, an estimated 428,000 persons may be directly linked to water use through pastoral and agricultural activities and artisanal fishing. About 2.5 million hectares of land are under small-scale production.
Stock watering has been valued at 50 liters per day per head cattle, but regional cattle estimates stand at over 290,000 (Marchand et al, 1983). The water requirement for livestock could be estimated, therefore, to be 14,704 m3 per day. Much of this requirement occurs during the dry season from May to November.
The amount of water extracted by rural residents for domestic uses and flood recession agriculture has not been determined. Obviously, since 60 liters per head per day is available for rural supply, an estimated total consumption rate of 25,680 m3 per day would be possible for inhabitants directly linked to the Kafue Flats. It is important to note that a reasonable proportion of the population extracts water from streams that lead to the Flats and from shallow wells. This also affects water discharge in the Kafue Flats.
The industrial water requirement has been estimated at 274,000 m3 per day (Table 5), while the domestic water rights for Lusaka urban areas is 200,000 m3 per day. The actual water requirement is valued at 120,700 m3 per day at the current consumption rate of 100 liters per person per day for Lusaka. The shortfall in water supply in Lusaka is attributed to the rapid growth of the industrial sector and a limited capacity to move water from the river to the city.
The Kafue Flats is an important ecosystem in the region. The food chain linkages as described by Handlos (1982) and Drijver and Marchand (1985) confirm the complexity of the system. Essentially, a wetland is a system of overlapping terrestrial and aquatic environments. Wetlands systems are known for their high biological productivity, agricultural resources, and water supply. Functionally, however, wetlands are significant for groundwater recharge and discharge, flood control, sediment retention, water transport, and tourism. But this significance can easily be lost as the system is exposed to stressful conditions such as the limited water supply.
Kafue Flats is among the major fisheries areas in Zambia. Muyanga and Chipungu (1982) have reported as many as 60 fish species to be endemic, of which 21 are commercially significant for the fishing communities in the country. Among the important species include Sarotherodon andersonii, S. macrochir, Tilapia rendalli, Labeo molybdinus, Clarias gariepinus, and Serranochromis angusticeps. However, following the construction of the hydroelectric dams, fish production has drastically declined primarily because of limited floods and the loss of breeding sites.
The issue of water use by the environment (through wildlife) is of primary importance when addressing the conservation of water resources in the area. Extensive work on the ecology and distribution of wildlife has been conducted by various people (UNFAO, 1968; Sheppe and Osborne, 1971; Sayer and Van Lavieren, 1975). Kafue Flats is important for the 60,000 Kafue lechwe (Kobus leche kafuensis) and several other species such as the zebra (Equus burchelli); roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus); wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus); sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei); reed buck (redunca arundinum); and the buffalo (Syncerus caffer). Swamps and lagoons are dominated by hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius); Nile crocodile (Crododilus niloticus); and aquatic birds. Wildlife is protected in Kafue Flats through the Lochinvar (41,000 hectares) and Blue Lagoon (45,000 hectares) National Parks.
Unfortunately, species such as the lechwe have been severely affected by dam development. The loss of breeding sites and feeding grounds due to lack of flooding has been critical. Populations of waterfowl, eagles, pelicans, and geese are low. Breeding sites for species such as wattle cranes and spurwing geese have been lost due to lack of flooding. This has been exacerbated by poor and erratic rainfall in the last ten years.
Knowledge of the recharge and discharge functions of the Kafue Flats is fairly limited. Understanding this function, however, could contribute considerably toward ensuring conflict resolution on water sharing. Similarly, a lack of understanding of important wetland functions such as flood control and sediment and toxicant retention provides only a narrow view of the area, a factor which could have a serious impact on management decisions.
Various predictions have been made in the last 30 years on the impending conflict over the use of water resources in Kafue Flats. Four major issues have been isolated as most important and of great concern in the management of water resources in this area. They are described below, not necessarily in the order of their importance.
As stated previously, the construction of the dam at Itezhitezhi just above the flood plain in 1977 brought major ecological and social problems. Many of these problems were predicted following a number of investigations by UNFAO (1968b) and Hebberg (1971). Water regulation was one of their most important recommendations: Allow a regular and normal water supply to all essential components of the Kafue Flats system.
To avoid a disastrous impact on the ecosystem in the Kafue Flats, partial flooding was proposed for the month of March (the normal period of peak discharge) by a release of about 300 m3 per second for a period of four weeks (Williams, 1977). However, this release could only be possible if the reservoir was full. The release of water during the dry season in August or September was used mainly to supply sufficient water to the lower dam at the Kafue Gorge. Dry season flooding would result. Since the estimated water supply could not support the feeding of the wetland ecosystem and a sufficient water flow for hydroelectric generation at the Kafue Gorge, the recommendation on water regulation has never been fulfilled.
As expected, the changes in flooding patterns have shown a wide range implications for the ecosystems.
(a) Fisheries. Breeding and migratory patterns of most fishes have been severely disrupted. The lack of flooding and the poor timing of regulated flooding have caused serious breeding failure in fish species. Limited movements of fish along streams for spawning have occurred when dry season flooding stimulates fish breeding. The breeding then terminates abruptly because flooding is limited to a period of three weeks. As a consequence, fish populations and fish harvests have declined.
(b) Wildlife. Species such as sitatunga are critically threatened with extinction because of limited flooding, which causes swamp conditions in lagoons. At present, its population has drastically declined. Similarly, migratory, breeding, and feeding patterns of the Kafue lechwe have greatly changed. Lechwe are semiaquatic animals, and thus annual flooding is critical to the species. The poor rainfall in the last ten years and limited release of water from the upper dam are responsible for the difficulties that species have in achieving healthy and sustainable populations. Feeding and breeding grounds are known to be lost due to low flooding during the rainy season and high flooding during the dry season (Rees, 1978; Chabwela and Ellenbroek, 1990).
According to predictions, serious consequences for these animals would be felt during dry season when grazing would be considerably limited. The release of water during this period means submerging the remaining green area, thus forcing animals to higher ground where grasses are dry and rank. This prediction has become a present-day reality. The loss of grazing area is also affecting the 250,000 livestock that have access to the Kafue Flats each year.
The lechwe use a lekking breeding system (Schuster, 1976; Nefdt, 1992). Leks, or small territories, have been traditionally established in special areas and are maintained, to some extent, throughout the year. Breeding success depends on the safety and richness of lekking areas. However, poor timing of flooding results in leks occurring far away from water or grazing ground, or these areas being submerged by flooding during the dry season. The case has become extremely severe for avifauna, which relies on floods for habitat improvement. The absence of adequate floods have greatly affected the breeding and feeding of aquatic birds, including the loss of habitat for semiaquatic species such as cranes. While this impact has not been fully evaluated, populations of wildlife species should be monitored.
The situation is similarly not encouraging for resources on the range. The lack of water has limited the occurrence of important palatable species such as the Echionochloa sp, Vossia cuspidata and Acroceras macrum. Instead, the Kafue Flats is increasingly being invaded by woody plants species, mainly Dichrostachys cinerea and Mimosa pigra. (Chabwela and Siwela, 1986).
A major emphasis has been placed on water quality of the river following expressed concern over increasing water weeds. As early as the 1970s, the question has been studied by various groups which have discussed possible pollution from agrochemicals (Salter, 1979), industries (Dietz et al., 1977; Kaoma and Salter, 1979), and from settlements and municipal waste (Iwugo, 1976). These studies, for the most part, agree that eutrophication due to agricultural chemical runoff and domestic effluent is the cause of considerable concern.
The problem of excessive weed growth of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) was recently investigated by the Canadian International Development Agency (1995). Results indicate that the weed growth is largely promoted by effluent from the Nakambala Sugar Estate. Similarly, Salvinia molesta is spreading rapidly particularly in the Chunga Lake and the area near the Kafue Gorge. Nevertheless the impoundment and slowing down of water flow generally promotes weed growth. Both pollution and the occurrence of weeds in the area are a serious threat to water accessibility and water quality.
Much of the Kafue Flats is under the traditional land tenure system of the Ila, Tonga, and Sala tribal communities. The system is classified either as a Reserve Land or Trust Land. The remaining land category is State Land, which is set aside for conservation purposes, primarily for forest reserves, national parks, and private land ownership including land occupied by companies.
The traditional land tenure refers to individual rights to land. Thus any parcel of land is identified as being owned by a particular individual, and these rights cannot be withdrawn by anyone, including the chief. The land right is very much attached to the issue of residence through the clearing of original land, transfer, or inheritance. Consequently the deed of title is the right of occupancy. However, much land under the traditional tenure system exercises communal rights in which land is available to all residents for grazing, hunting, fishing, farming, and water extraction. Therefore, it is by no means irregular when inhabitants of the Kafue Flats claim access to water resources and grazing grounds (GRZ, 1982).
Unfortunately, the management of natural resources in Kafue Flats is a responsibility of government institutions. The aspect of communal rights such as hunting and fishing has, for the most part, been considerably diminished. All previous traditional powers allowing individuals to hunt wildlife have since been withdrawn. All hunting has to be done on permit, using current hunting practices.
A valid concern over access to land, water and grazing grounds became obvious when the Nakambala Sugar Estate was developed. The estate blocked cattle movements to Kafue Flats for communities located in the East and Southeast Mazabuka districts. Then, the establishment of national parks óLochinvar in 1972 and Blue Lagoon in 1973óreduced grazing areas and blocked cattle movements to the flood plain for grazing and water drinking. Next, water availability for livestock was limited following the construction of the dam at Itezhitezhi, a matter which has caused serious concern. Finally, as stated earlier, land in the area is becoming increasingly limited as human population continues to grow.
The statements recorded by the 1982 Commission of Inquiry into Land Matters of Southern Province typify the general feeling of the people on the conflict between inhabitants and other land uses in Kafue Flats. Individuals expressed bitterness and hopelessness. They were in favor of abolishing Lochinvar National Park because they did not see any need for the preservation of wildlife in the area. Although no legal complaint has yet to be instituted, the possibility exists that future discussions on water rights may point in that direction.
The question of who owns the water in Kafue Flats concerns all water users. While the Water Board in the Ministry of Energy and Water Development is responsible for water allocation, severe conflict exists because much of the water is regulated by ZESCO. In fact, ZESCO has since objected to any further water demand by any group that has applied for water rights from the area because additional water extraction might pose a risk to power generation. Water ownership continues to be a major issue in Kafue Flats.
Discussions on the major threats to Kafue Flats (Chabwela, 1994) also emphasize issues of deforestation in the catchment area, overgrazing, overexploitation of wildlife and fisheries, poldering or wetland draining, and fires. Essentially, these problems are the result of what the population can do when it interacts with the environment.
Of immediate importance, however, is deforestation, which occurs as a result of land clearing for agricultural purposes, charcoal production, timber harvesting, overgrazing, and bush fires. Excessive vegetation removal is seen as a major threat in the river basin, and the subcatchment is in fact virtually deforested. The Nangoma and Munyeke rivers, which until the 1970s used to flow as perennial rivers, have become ephemeral, a direct consequence of excessive vegetation removal. A declining water table and increased siltation in streams could be a major hindrance to water extraction and water quality.
Overexploitation of resources, particularly wildlife and fisheries, is attributed to several factors. While it is fair to state that the natural resources in Kafue Flats are not adequately managed, institutional weaknesses and the rapidly rising population are usually singled out as the most critical factors. Fish harvesting is rarely controlled and the use of illegal fishing methods is common, including the use of the wrong gear and poisoning. Similarly, the confining of wildlife species to two protected areas is an indication of extreme human pressure due to rising human population and increasing land demand. But most people tend to believe that the degradation of natural resources is an issue that should not only concern government but all land users in the area, including the local people. Observations indicate that overfishing and illegal hunting are caused by people who come from outside the Kafue Flats. Obviously, resolution of land use conflict could reverse this trend.
Three main concerns have emerged from the discussion in this report: first, the need to increase water supply in the area; second, the need to establish good water quality and improved accessibility to water; and third, the need to increase productivity of the Kafue Flats wetlands system. These objectives are important for the country. However, to answer the question of their significance, one must refer to the overall goal of raising the standard of living of the people of Zambia and minimizing poverty.
1. Place the emphasis on the management of water and other natural resources by maintaining the appropriate water balance for all systems. Meet the water demands on the river and ensure the water is free of pollution and weeds. The need to establish a water and wetlands policy for the area becomes critical.
2. Critically safeguard the health of all water users by allowing accessibility to safe water. At the same time, put a population policy in place to ensure sustainable utilization of water resources.
3. In meeting program objectives and reducing water resources degradation and land use conflict, the program should assess institutional drawbacks, their functions, and weaknesses, including financial and managerial capacity. These serious constraints have negatively affected the execution and implementation of many projects.
4. The successful implementation of conservation measures should involve an optimal combination of agencies to ensure that proposed recommendations are observed. Sectoral integration of project planning and implementation, paying special attention to the concept of holistic project packaging, would necessitate the establishment of a coordinating agency. In this case, an institution of the nature of the Kafue River Basin Authority could provide a reasonable approach under this initiative. While the current functions of the Water Board are fully appreciated, this authority could, among other activities, provide guidelines for the management of the Kafue Basin as well as the evaluation and monitoring of project packaging.
5. Establish a resource inventory that will serve as the basis for identifying all future projects for development and natural resources management in Kafue Flats. Of course, bearing in mind that some information on the Kafue Basin already exists, substantial work would focus on reorganizing and analyzing information and enhancing the ongoing sectoral monitoring practices.
6. Involve local communities wherever possible in both the planning and implementation processes. Their participation and cooperation are critical in resolving land use conflict. In fact, understanding the root cause of local peopleís problems will help implement water conservation and population strategies.
7. Public awareness and education are essential to the successful implementation of the strategy. Enhancing the publicís knowledge would be critical in terms of natural resources exploitation, population dynamics, community property rights, and health.
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